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Policy on the care and use of non-human primates for scientific purposes
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- » Introduction
- » NHMRC policy on the care and use of non-human primates for scientific purposes
- » NHMRC Statement on the use of great apes for scientific purposes
- » Appendix 1: Notes for investigators and AECs on the management, housing and care of non-human primates
- » Appendix 2: AEC Checklist for assessing proposals involving non-human primates
- » Appendix 3: Recommended websites
- » Appendix 4: Contact details for the National Breeding Colonies and the Animal Welfare Committee of NHMRC
- » Appendix 5: Relevant legislation
Introduction
The NHMRC recognises that non-human primates can provide unique and invaluable models for medical research purposes due to their close evolutionary relationship to humans. However, special ethical and welfare issues arise because of the cognitive abilities associated with their well-developed forebrains. Also, health problems for animals and their carers can occur as a result of the close biological relationship between human and non-human primates.
Before any research using non-human primates commences, approval must be obtained from the AEC where the work is to be undertaken. Where more than one institution is involved, each AEC must approve, or delegate approval of, the scientific activities being conducted by members of its institution. All research conducted in Australia must comply with the Code of Practice, this document and the relevant State and Territory legislation (see Appendix 3). Research conducted overseas under the auspices of an Australian institution must conform to standards at least equivalent to those of the Australian Code of Practice and this policy.
The NHMRC supports National Breeding Colonies (NBCs) for macaques (Macaca nemestrina and Macaca fascicularis), marmosets (Callithrix j. jacchus) and baboons (Papio hamadryas). These colonies have been established to centralise breeding, provide a consistently high standard of animal care and management, and to allow access to non-human primates for research.
Discussion with NBC management early in the planning stages for a project requiring non-human primates is essential to assist in matching breeding programs to the demand for animals.
This document is intended to:
- detail the NHMRC policy for the care and use of non-human primates for scientific purposes;
- outline basic principles for the care and use of non-human primates for scientific purposes to assist investigators, teachers and animal technicians; and
- assist AECs in considering applications for the use of non-human primates for scientific purposes.
This document is not intended to provide specific details of the care, handling and management of non-human primates. These can be obtained from the NBCs, zoos and the extensive literature available on the subject.
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NHMRC Policy on the care and use of non-human primates for scientific purposes
The NHMRC will only fund research using non-human primates which meets all of the following requirements:
1. No alternative to animal use or other species of animal is suitable for the particular research project and the predicted outcome of the project justifies the use of non-human primates.
2. The most appropriate species of non-human primate is chosen and detailed justification for such use is provided to the AEC.
3. The application to the AEC must state the fate of the non-human primates at the end of the project.
In deciding the fate of the animals, their long-term welfare must be taken into account. If retirement is an option, health, temperament and space availability must be considered because the NBCs will not generally accept animals that have been used for scientific purposes. In most cases, euthanasia will be the only option.
4. Whenever possible investigators obtain non-human primates from the NBCs.
The NBCs provide macaques (Macaca nemestrina & Macaca fascicularis), baboons (Papio hamadryas) and marmosets (Callithrix j. jacchus). The necessity to obtain these or other species from elsewhere must be established.
5. Investigators must ensure that documentation of the source of each non-human primate and assessment of its behaviour, clinical history and health status must accompany the animal and must be kept current.
6. To assist the AEC consider the case for importation from overseas in the context of the Code of Practice, investigators must provide the AEC with all available information regarding animal welfare at the source facility.
This should include housing conditions, social grouping, environmental enrichment, diet, fertility and transport conditions between the source colony and the institution.
7. Non-human primates imported from overseas must not be taken from wild populations and must be accompanied by documentation to certify their status.
8. Confirmation of orders and dispatch of non-human primates do not occur before the institutional AEC has approved the project.
Preliminary orders may be placed with the NBCs to assist in breeding programs.
9. Investigators performing experiments overseas under the auspices of an Australian institution obtain approval from an Australian AEC that, of necessity, may include the delegation of authority to inspect sites and monitor projects at remote sites.
10. Animals are not bred in Australia outside the NBCs unless as a integral component of the research protocol with AEC approval.
11. Imported species of non-human primates are not used to establish a breeding colony outside the NBCs.
Establishment of a breeding colony from a species of non-human primate not currently held at the NBCs can only occur at an NBC with prior approval from the AWC of the NHMRC.
12. Non-human primates originally sourced from overseas are not exported from Australia.
13. Australian-bred non-human primates are not exported unless for a specific purpose, in which case exemption must be obtained from the AWC of the NHMRC.
Examples of specific purposes would be maintenance of genetic diversity or provision of overseas researchers with a model of a primate disease. For approved specific purposes, animals may only be exported to institutions with animal welfare standards equivalent to those required by the Australian Code of Practice.
14. The principal investigator and all animal care staff have training and experience specific for the species of non-human primate to be used.
Before commencing a project, the principal investigator should consult with NBC management to ensure continuity and consistency in the care of animals and to become familiar with any relevant standard operating procedures.
15. Accommodation for non-human primates as described under Appendix 1 Point 4 is available before the animals are obtained.
When new caging is required, personnel responsible for planning and financing the project first seek advice from NBC management. Before using non-human primates, investigators funded by NHMRC should be prepared to allow access to the AWC of the NHMRC to inspect the facilities where the animals will be housed and used.16. Social interaction between experimental animals is accommodated.
Animals should be held in appropriate social groupings unless the AEC has specifically approved individual caging as necessary for a particular project. When individual caging of animals is unavoidable, it is for a minimum time and the singly-housed animal is given auditory and visual contact with other animals in the colony.
17. When social isolation is unavoidable, attempts are made to increase the variety of environmental enrichment beyond that available for socially-grouped animals.
18. Daytime access to an outside enclosure is freely available to all non-human primates held for six weeks or longer.
It must be ensured that the non-human primates are presented with as many choices of environment as possible. Outside enclosures are important to increase the variety of stimuli perceived. The external environment provides elements of enrichment. Access to an outside enclosure is recommended for all animals. Where it is deemed essential to prevent animals held for six weeks or longer from moving outside of their own free will, exemption is to be obtained from the AWC of the NHMRC.
19. All personnel working with non-human primates are informed about the diseases transmissible between non-human primates and humans and are instructed on the measures needed to prevent disease transmission.
See also Appendix 1, Point 3.
20. When non-human primates are killed for experimental or veterinary reasons, all possible attempts are made to inform other interested investigators of the availability of tissues and organs and their disease status.
This may effectively be achieved through NBC management who will disseminate the information to interested investigators.
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NHMRC Statement on the use of great apes
The species of great ape, gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee and bonobo, are closely related to humans in evolution. Proposals to AECs requesting the use of great apes for scientific purposes may pose particular concerns.
The AWC of the NHMRC must be notified of proposals for the use of great apes for scientific purposes approved by the institutional AEC before the project can commence.
Great apes may only be used for scientific purposes if the following conditions are met:
- Resources, including staff and housing, are available to ensure high standards of care for the animals
- The use would potentially benefit the individual animal and the species to which the animal belongs
- The potential benefits of the scientific knowledge gained will outweigh harm to the animal
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APPENDIX 1: Notes for investigators and AECs on the management, housing and care of non-human primates
These notes draw attention to Occupational Health and Safety considerations, risk assessment and ways of minimising cross-infections, between humans and non-human primates, for which institutions must have policies in place. Organisations that use non-human primates must establish and implement policies to deal with the health of the animals from the colony to the end-user to ensure a high standard of animal care and to minimise the risk of disease transmission between human and non-human primates.
To ensure the wellbeing of the animals and to facilitate their management, all staff must be well trained in handling methods and have a sound knowledge of the species in their charge. Training for new or inexperienced staff and investigators must be arranged in consultation with the management of the NBCs. Training through the NBC will facilitate familiarity between the animal and the investigator and the transition of the non-human primates to a new environment.
Investigators and the team working with non-human primates should be familiar with all aspects of the care and use of non-human primates, before obtaining animals or commencing projects. When preparing an application to the AEC for a research project involving the use of non-human primates, investigators should consult with NBC management as a source of helpful information. Application to the AEC should document evidence of the competence of the investigator's team in dealing with the species.
3 Health Hazards and Prevention of Disease
Non-human primates and humans are susceptible to a number of the same diseases. Institutions should consider establishing preventative veterinary and medical health programs to minimise the risks to both human and non-human primates.
3.1 All staff who handle or deal in any way with non-human primates, or tissues derived from them, must be made aware of potential health hazards arising from transmissible diseases and injury during handling.
Institutions should ensure that a local doctor, or medical staff at a local hospital, is informed that the institution is conducting research involving the use of non-human primates. Medical personnel should be made aware of the possible disease risks associated with such work. Ideally, base-line serological data from individuals working with non-human primates should be stored at a nominated local hospital. A protocol should be developed to cover non-human primate bites to humans, in particular those from macaques which may carry and transmit Herpes B virus. Many common transmissible human diseases may be readily transferred from human to non-human primates. Transmission may occur via saliva, respiratory aerosols, mucosal contamination, body fluids or faeces. To minimise the risk of infecting the colony, staff dealing with animals should be screened regularly for TB.
3.2 All staff working with non-human primates should be immunised against tetanus and infectious diseases known to be carried by non-human primates such as, diphtheria, polio, hepatitis A and B. Staff with an infectious disease, including a cold, flu, Herpes, measles, mumps, chickenpox or upper respiratory tract infections, should avoid contact with animals.
Personal hygiene is the first line of defence in preventing the transmission of disease. To minimise the risk of disease transmission and/or injury personnel should:
- employ good laboratory practice while working in the facility;
- avoid eating and drinking in the animal holding areas;
- ensure that all staff are appropriately vaccinated;
- wash hands thoroughly with antiseptic soap on entering and leaving the animal holding areas;
- wear gloves, protective clothing, dedicated footwear or overshoes and safety glasses when entering the animal rooms;
- use handling methods that minimise discomfort to the animals and maximise safety for the handlers;
- wear clothing and gloves sufficient to provide protection against bites and scratches when handling animals;
- wear a dust mask when cleaning litter trays;
- consider wearing hearing protection which is recommended and must be available;
- wear gloves, protective clothing and safety glasses when handling primate tissues;
- ensure that caging is secure;
- exclude unwell people from the animal holding areas;
- restrict access to visitors;
- use a pre-entry questionnaire to screen staff and visitors to the animal facility for any recent potential exposure to pathogens;
- keep a record of all personnel who enter the facility to enable trace-back; and
- maintain a first aid kit wherever non-human primates are handled.
4 Housing requirements and environmental enrichment
Housing of non-human primates should be designed with the aim of satisfying the behavioural, social and physical needs of the particular species. The environment should stimulate activities, improve cognitive capabilities and facilitate social interaction while encouraging the animals to display a more complete range of normal behaviours. For instance, it should be recognised that individuals within social groupings will at times seek privacy, which may be achieved by the inclusion of opaque barriers and nesting boxes in animal enclosures. The Code of Practice deals with general considerations relating to the design of accommodation to meet species-specific needs . While primates as a group are social, there is considerable variation in social requirements for the species held in the NBCs. This variation between species must be taken into account when planning or assessing management strategies and housing conditions. Emphasis must also be placed on enrichment of the physical environmental that may include:
- elevated perches and tree branches
- toys, including balls, stainless steel mirrors, plastic containers, tyres, PVC pipes, milk containers and water tanks
- facilities for foraging eg feeding puzzles, non-toxic browse foliage and food in foraging material
- novel, challenging but safe cage furniture
- visual and auditory contact with other non-human primates, and
- the animal carers themselves
4.1 In most cases, isolation is only justifiable for short periods during the experimental procedure or during essential veterinary treatment. If it is necessary to maintain a socially-incompatible individual separately from other animals, opportunity should be provided for close social contact such as grooming through cage dividers. Singly-housed animals must have visual and auditory contact with other members of the species and must have the opportunity to fulfil behavioural needs in a suitably-constructed enclosure.
4.2 Caging should be large enough to accommodate group housing and to allow the animals to perform varied and stimulating activities. The cage fixtures should allow the animal the opportunity for privacy from others in the group and from humans.
4.3 The major concerns in the design of animal housing should be the welfare of the animals and staff safety. A well-designed facility will have the added benefit of improving the conditions for those responsible for the animals' care. During planning, advisers and architects must be informed of the particular needs of the species based on information from NBC management and the AEC.
4.4 The requirements for vertical and horizontal space differ between species of non-human primate. For example, the provision of vertical space is more important for marmosets and macaques than baboons. Efforts should be made to ensure that full advantage is taken of available vertical space through the provision of perches, climbing frames, nest boxes, vantage points etc.
4.5 Animals must be provided with daytime access, which is freely available, to an outside enclosure if they are to be held for six weeks or longer unless exempt under the terms of the policy (See Point 18). Outside enclosures should contain appropriate devices to enrich the physical environment as indicated at the beginning of Appendix 1 Point 4.
4.6 It is essential to provide a mechanism for the safe and efficient capture and handling of animals. This should be considered at the time of cage design or purchase.
4.7 Temperature control may be required, depending upon both the climate and the species of non-human primate. Marmosets, for example, are particularly susceptible to the cold. Animal holding areas may require air-conditioning, central heating and heated sleeping benches. Where temperature control is necessary, it is essential that a suitable back-up system is available in the event of power or equipment failure.
4.8 An alternative to the use of concrete as a floor surface is river gravel over mesh (to provide rodent-proofing). The size of the river gravel used would depend upon the species being housed. The use of litter for foraging should be considered. Under-substrate drainage is necessary.
4.9 Facilities and working areas should be designed to prevent the escape of animals and access to intruders.
4.10 Kitchen facilities for the hygienic preparation and storage of food must be provided.
4.11 Facilities should also be provided for sterilising utensils.
4.12 Concrete surfaces should be sealed for ease of cleaning and to ensure that floors can be dried rapidly after cleaning.
4.13 Measures to achieve vermin control must be considered and included in the design.
4.14 Thorough cage cleaning must be supplemented by the use of an effective disinfectant.
4.15 Lighting should be set at a level appropriate for the species. The use of skylights and windows for natural lighting is encouraged.
5.1 All facilities that house non-human primates must have a plan in place to deal with emergencies.
5.2 Where re-location of the animals is feasible, the emergency plan should include details of the new location for housing and the mode of transport.
5.3 All staff must be familiar with the emergency plan, and
5.4 During an emergency or natural disaster, animals must not be moved until the situation has been assessed and direction given by the person in charge.
Sudden change of diet could impact on the health and welfare of the animal. It is important to discuss the current diet with the relevant NBCs and, if necessary, how to introduce dietary change.
6.1 Good nutrition is essential to the health and wellbeing of the animals. Diets are commercially available and additional dietary information may be obtained from the NBCs. Particular attention is required if non-human primates are not exposed to sunlight due to the need for Vitamin D. Attention is also drawn to the need to provide clean, fresh water and to the dietary requirements for Vitamin C.
6.2 The quantity and type of food and the way it is presented must meet the nutritional requirements of all members of a colony, taking into account the physiological states and behaviours of individuals. This will ensure that for animals housed in groups, those of lower social standing within the colony will receive adequate nutrition. For example, consideration should be given to the provision of private areas where timid animals may escape the influence of dominant animals in a social group.
6.3 In the wild, foraging may take up to 70% of waking hours of non-human primates, so measures should be taken to increase the time the animals used for scientific purposes spend foraging. Foraging activity can reinforce social behaviour and reduce boredom and is encouraged by, for example, feeding several times a day and mixing small food particles with clean litter and floor substrate. High fibre food items such as non-toxic tree branches - willows, banana palms and Ficus sppI - are recommended, whereas Australian native species with a high content of volatile oils, such as Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and Leptospermum, should be avoided.
7 TransportBefore non-human primates are transported, the following must be considered:
- The requirement for AEC approval of projects before the animals are transported
- The personnel responsible for the animals from point of departure to destination including during any break in the journey
- Physical containment of the animals
- Twenty four hour contact details on the container in case of an emergency
- Whether animals are fit to travel. For example, pregnant animals in the last third of gestation should not be subjected to transport stress
- The likelihood of sudden or extreme changes in temperature during transport and how any such changes will be managed
- Whether animals will best be transported singly, in pairs or as a group
- The total time for transportation, which will influence the timing of feeding and watering
- For the importation of non-human primates, the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry-Australia's conditions must be met
- For air travel, assurance that the animals will travel in a pressurised and temperature controlled compartment in compliance with the document Live Animals Regulations of the International Air Transport Association (IATA)¹
Good health and welfare of the non-human primates used for scientific purposes is central to good science. The institutional AEC should ensure that the health and wellbeing of experimental animals are regularly assessed by the investigators and their staff. Qualified individuals not involved in the project, such as animal welfare officers and veterinarians experienced in managing the health of non-human primates, should also assess the animals at a frequency determined by the AEC. When determining the frequency of monitoring, the AEC should note that the presence of strangers may cause distress to the animals.
A veterinarian must perform a post mortem for all deaths other than those due to planned humane killing at the end of the project. Every effort should be made to have the investigator present at the post mortem. It is the responsibility of the investigator to inform the AEC of such deaths and any remedial action taken and to report the results of the post mortem promptly to the AEC. In addition, the results of the post mortem must be forwarded to NBC management to assist them in maintaining complete records of the health status of the colony. If the death of an animal is unexpected or is the result of experimental methods or of mismanagement, the investigator and animal care staff must take immediate action to try and prevent further deaths from the same cause.Before importing non-human primates permission must be obtained from two authorities:
- Australian Quarantine Inspection Service of the Commonwealth Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry - Australia; and
- Environment Australia, Department of the Environment and Heritage.
Further information can be obtained from the web sites listed under Appendix 3.
If animals are to be imported for NHMRC-funded research, the AWC of the NHMRC must be notified after approval of the project by the relevant AEC(s) and before importation of the animals.
¹ 27th Edition 1999[ top ]
APPENDIX 2: AEC Checklist for assessing proposals involving non-human primates
For advice on all aspects of the care and use of non-human primates for scientific purposes, AECs should consult with NBC management in the first instance. This following checklist, which is not intended to be comprehensive, is to be used in conjunction with the Code of Practice:
1. Is the AEC convinced that the potential benefits of the scientific knowledge gained outweigh the potential harm to the animal?2. Has the applicant provided evidence that the use of alternatives has been fully considered?
3. Has the applicant justified the choice of non-human primate species and the particular species chosen for this project?
4. Has the applicant provided sufficient information about the species, the source of animals and transport arrangements, whether from overseas or within Australia?
5. Has the applicant obtained all relevant permits?
6. Are the numbers of animals to be used the minimum required to complete the project successfully? Are the animals available?
7. Are mechanisms in place for safe handling with minimum stress to the animals?
8. Housing:
- Where are the animals to be housed?
- Will the size of cages or enclosures allow adequate room (vertical and horizontal dimensions) for species specific behavioural requirements?
- Are environmental conditions, such as temperature, light, humidity and noise, appropriate to the particular species?
- Will animals be housed singly or in groups? If singly, is this essential for project reasons?
- What social contact will be provided?
- Does the housing provide opportunities for varied and stimulating activities?
- Will daytime to an outside enclosure be freely available for animals held for six weeks or longer? If not, has approval been obtained for an exemption from the AWC of the NHMRC?
- Is the investigator competent in all procedures (including expertise in anaesthesia) involving direct contact with the animals?
- When invasive procedures will be used, is the AEC satisfied with proposed measures for post-operative care and pain management?
- When animals will be restrained, is the AEC satisfied with the procedures that will be used and the duration of restraint?
- What is the duration of the project involving non-human primates?
- What is the fate of the animal at the completion of the project?
- Are the animal care staff and the investigator(s) experienced and competent in the care of non-human primates?
- Has a set of standard operating procedures for staff been developed, including Occupational Health and Safety issues, management of the colony and emergency procedures?
- Have all staff members been instructed in the necessary hygiene measures?
- Has a preventative medicine program been instigated for staff members involved with handling non-human primates?
- What specific measures will be taken to prevent the transmission of zoonotic diseases?
- Is suitable food and water available?
- Is the feeding regime designed to stimulate foraging behaviour?
- How will the welfare of animals be assessed?
- How will the assessment be reported to the AEC?
- Who will carry out the assessment?
- How frequently will the animals be assessed by investigators, the AEC and other qualified individuals?
- Where will the animals be held during the project?
- After the commencement of the project how will the AEC establish that the project continues to comply with the Australian Code of Practice and that it is being performed as described in the approved application?
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APPENDIX 3: Recommended websites
NHMRC guidelines
- » The Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes. 6th and subsequent editions
American Society of Primatologists
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
Georgia State University, Viral Immunology Center
Primate Enrichment Database
PrimateLit Bibliographic database
Nutrient Requirements of Nonhuman Primates (1978) National Research Council. Publisher: National Academy of Sciences. Washington.
Air Transport Association (IATA) document Live Animals Regulations of the International Air Transport Association 27th Edition 1999.
Current quarantine requirements can be obtained from the Australian Quarantine Inspection Service of the Commonwealth Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Australia, under Quarantine and Export Services:
Environment Australia (EA)
European Commission, Report of the Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on the welfare of non-human primates used in research. Adopted 17 December 2002
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APPENDIX 4: Contact details for the National Breeding Colonies and the Animal Welfare Committee of NHMRC
- National Macaque Facility
- National Marmoset Colony
- National Baboon Colony
For further information about these colonies, please contact:
The Chairperson
NHMRC Animal Welfare Committee
Mail Drop Point 33
GPO Box 9848
CANBERRA ACT 2601
Tel: 1800 020 103 (Free Call)
Fax: (02) 6289 9132
Email: research@nhmrc.gov.au
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APPENDIX 5: Relevant legislation
1. Commonwealth - Importation and Quarantine
The importation of primates is controlled under.
- Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment (Wildlife Protection) Act 2001
- The Quarantine Act 1908and the Quarantine Proclamation 1998 and its amendments
- The Customs Act 1901
2. State and Territory
(a)Legislation regulating animal use in each State/Territory:
QLD: Animal Care and Protection Act 2001
NSW: Animal Research Act 1985
VIC: Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986
TAS: Animal Welfare Act 1993
SA: Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1985
WA: Animal Welfare Act 2002
ACT: Animal Welfare Act 1992
NT: Animal Welfare Act 2000
(b)Occupational Health and Safety Acts
Commonwealth: Occupational Health and Safety (Commonwealth Employment Act 1991).
QLD: Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995
NSW: Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000
VIC: Occupational Health and Safety Act 1985
TAS: Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995 and the Workplace Health and Safety Regulations 1998
SA: Occupational Health, Safety and Welfare Act 1986
WA: Occupational Safety and Health Act 1985
ACT: Occupational Health and Safety Act 1989
NT: Work Health Act 1989
QLD: Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995
SA: Occupational Health, Safety and Welfare Act 1986
TAS: Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995 and the Workplace Health and Safety Regulations 1998
VIC: Occupational Health and Safety Act 1985
WA: Occupational Safety and Health Act 1985
(c) Legislation regulating the keeping of primates
- VIC: Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 - (Part 8)
ADD OTHER RELEVANT LEGISLATION FOR THE STATES AND TERRITORIESQLD: Nature Conservation Act 1992 and the Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994
NSW: Non-Indigenous Animals Act 1987, Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986 and Animal Research Act 1985
VIC: Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 - Part 8
TAS: Animal Health Act 1995 and National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970
SA: Animal and Plant Control (Agricultural Protection and Other Purposes) Act 1983
WA: Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act 1970
ACT: Nature Conservation Act 1980
NT: Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act and Territory Wildlife Regulations
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